Sundry Issues Essay Example for Free

Sundry Issues Essay The present paper wishes to present some of the issues that are involved in the recruitment and selection of expatriates for multinational companies. It is necessary that the management of companies be strongly aware of these issues to be able to deploy the appropriate, qualified personnel for critical offshore assignments. One of the key issues that ought to be considered in the recruitment and selection of expatriates is their capacity to adjust effectually to the role. This means that they should be willing and able to learn about the pecualirities of the culture to which they would be deployed, including the traits of power distance, masculinity, human orientation, achievement, and future orientation. Another issue is their willingness to undergo expatriation training. Their mother companies and satellite offices ought to provide the infrastructure for such training but the candidates for expatriation must have the unique task and people skills that will make them effective in their offshore assignments. Expatriate candidates must also adjust effectively to their new living conditions, and learn as much as they can about the new norms. They should be willing to undergo cultural training programs. The expatriate candidate should be highly trainable; through pre-departure training programs, they should be immediately be adept at the nuances of their new environment and culture. Finally, they should be able to blend well with a cross-cultural team, and depending on their role even spearhead the building of teams in a global context. Effectual Work Adjustment Based on a past research by Kabasakal and Bodur (1997), some cultures are characterised by a strong slant towards collectivism and both societal and organisational levels. It may perhaps be useful for the multinational company to initially analyse the culture to which they would assign managers in terms of power distance, masculinity, human orientation, achievement, and future orientation (Hofstede, 1983). It may also look into the business culture’s commitment and sense of duty to the organisation, respect for managerial hierarchy, type of leadership, and other ethical norms. Armed with such knowledge, expatriates can definitely influence the expectations of its expatriates and help in their adjustment to the new work environment (Hofstede, 1983). In addition, business culture communication styles should also be assessed by the company and the manner through which corporate values and organisational culture are transmitted. For instance, is it through socialisation? In some cultures, exchange of favors, information sharing and friendships are critical means of winning and developing trust. Logically, managers who are sent to the country ought to have such characteristics as patience and being open to socialisation with locals. Apparently, expatriates will experience a whole host of changes in being sent to a global post. On a personal level, they are required to undergo a transition from an environment to which they were accustomed to one which is very unfamiliar. Naturally, this required modifications in their living habits, and entailed finding a healthy, novel balance between their work and personal preoccupations. For a majority of individuals, this expends too much time and effort. Thus, the human resources department of the multinational company ought to take action to prepare them so that they may cope with these difficulties in adjustment. The research of Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) indicate that adjustment to the cross-cultural facets of a global assignment requires three distinct personal abilities, as follows: 1) the capacity to sustain a valued sense of self; 2) the ability to associate to host nationals; 3) the ability to intellectually appreciate the belief systems that underpin behaviours in the host country. If expatriates will be oriented with these traits, it would have been easier for them to adjust because their expectations were more effectively managed (Black, 1990b; Mendenhall Oddou, 1985). If they possessed such traits, it would have been more probable for them to adjust easily in their offshore assignment. In a related vein, the multinational company is obliged to help select those individuals with these ideal traits for expatriation assignments. However, while the organisation may try its best to send ideal candidates, they are frequently unavailable – thus, tradeoffs and compromises may be needed. Expatriates ought to try their best to find out what makes their foreign counterparts ‘tick’. They could start with learning the basics of the culture, norms, beliefs, and customs. They should also take every chance to interface with their colleagues to facilitate this socio-cultural adjustment process. Preparation for Expatriation Moreover, multinational companies must ensure that they are ready to prepare their expatriates for offshore assignments. With the integration of global markets and the burgeoning growth of multinational business activity, multinational companies have to learn how to effectively manage, coordinate, control and synergise its operations with their offshore counterparts. This preparation process, however, is not such an easy task. The difficulty lies in the fact that this requires them to have unique skills different from those that proved to be effective when they were assigned as managers in the local office from which they were deployed. Expatriates should be equipped with the knowledge of the satellite company’s organisational culture and philosophy, home country business practices, norms and customs. Being assigned to a foreign environment with peculiar political, cultural, and economic working conditions, expatriates encounter both job-related and personal difficulties (Birdseye Hill, 1995). If these issues expressed by the team are not given adequate attention, this results in extreme stress in both the expatriate’s personal life and life, and ultimately to expatriate turnover. Facets of Cross Cultural Adjustment for Expatriates Predeparture Expatriation Training Programs Multinational companies ought to ensure that training programs are given to candidates for expatriation to facilitate their adjustment to amenities, overall living conditions, and social norms. For example, cultural diversity training programs and learning sessions concentrating on values, habits, beliefs, religion and language of the locals must be part of the preparation of expatriates. These will help them undergo the indoctrination period more easily and quickly. In this context, expatriates should also be keenly aware of the particular facets of life in the local country. If expatriates that their families are made aware of these information and their expectations well managed, then unwelcome surprises may be avoided (Cavusgil et al. , 1992; Marlin et al. , 1995; Tung, 1982).

Festivals in Davao Region Essay Example for Free

Festivals in Davao Region Essay Held annually in the city of Tagum, Davao del Norte during February 21-27, Musikahan Festival also known as Musikahan sa Tagum, is a distinct cultural event celebrating Filipino excellence in music through composition, performance and production, providing the youth with more opportunities in the music industry as its goal. Local government of Tagum provides musical instruments to public schools aiming to amplify music appreciation and enhance the skills in performance of the youth in the field of music and prepare them for a bright future in music career. Also, Tagum City facilitates the participation of local barangay units in various music competitons not only to enrich cultural literacy but also as an opportunity to gain support in the development projects of local communities. Musikahan Festival is a weeklong musical celebration that also aims to promote Tagum City as the Music Capital of Mindanao and have now finally made a mark in the music scene as Department of Tourism have officially included the event as one of the countrys pride festivals .Already earning popularism, the city of Tagum plans to bid for a Guinness Record for the longest nonstop live concert in the world. Current holder of the title is Japan with a record of 184 hours. About 5,000 members of contingents from the cities of Cagayan de Oro, Malaybalay, Marawi, Cotabato, Butuan, and Davao, of participants alone not including the visitors, compete in various musical contests which is expected to triple the income of business establishments in Tagum City. Musikahan Festival also aims to provide employment and livelihood for the townspeople. The City of Tagum claims that visitors who would take part in the celebration will be the cause for the city to have substantial multiplier effect to its businesses for they are sure to buy goods in the markets. Revelers can avail food at reasonable prices as booths are scattered in almost every part of the venue during the Musikahan Festival. Holding of the event is also an opportunity for tourism investments for hotels and malls, which is continously flourishing along with the citys development. Among the festivals highlights are the Battle of the Bands which divided into three categories: Folksong / Acoustic / Bossa Nova, Reggae / Ska / Emo, and Pop / Rock / Alternative category, the Drum and Bugle Corps / Chorale Competition category, and the Marching Brass Band Competition. Kadayawan Festival From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The Kadayawan Festival is an annual festival in the city of Davao in the Philippines. Its name derives from the friendly greeting Madayaw, from the Dabawenyo word dayaw, meaning good, valuable, superior or beautiful. The festival is a celebration of life, a thanksgiving for the gifts of nature, the wealth of culture, the bounties of harvest and serenity of living. Indak-indak sa Kadalanan. Indak-indak sa Kadalanan. Kadayawan Festival 2012 Kadayawan Festival 2012 Kadayawan Festival 2012 Davao Events and Festivals Davao, Philippines offers visitors a rich array of events and festivals throughout the year that highlight its unique cultural identity and history. HotelTravel.com highlights the key events and festivals in Davao from month to month, providing visitors with a huge choice of possible choice to play that once in a lifetime holiday around. Each one brings to life why Davao is so representative of people from Philippines. Click the events and festival links below for further information. Davao has a busy calendar of events which includes both holidays that are celebrated by the entire nation and a variety of celebrations that are exclusive to the region. Religion plays a big part in local festivities, with the largest events generally revolving around Roman Catholicism. Below are the most popular festivals enjoyed across the Davao region. January New Years Day: Davao’s residents celebrate the arrival of the New Year with a day off work and the chance to relax and enjoy get-togethers with friends and family. Araw ng mga Natibo: otherwise known as the Day of the Natives, this distinctly regional event sees members of the Tagacaolos, Blaans and Manobo tribes come together to celebrate their respective cultures through performances of ethnic singing and dancing, and the unusual spectacle of horse fighting. February People Power Day: Davao’s residents join the nation in enjoying a public holiday in remembrance of the 1986 People Power Revolt. March Araw ng Dabaw: Davao City celebrates the historic event when the city received an official charter. For a week, the locals enjoy a variety of festivities including horse fighting, ethnic rituals, a beauty contest and grand parade. April Easter: Locals are predominantly Catholic and so attend Holy Week services, culminating in Mass on Easter Sunday followed by celebrations with family and friends. Bataan Day: Davao locals enjoy this national holiday in remembrance of those who gave their lives in battles against the Japanese for control of the Bataan peninsular at the start of WWII. May Summer Island Festival: the third week of the month sees this popular event based at Samal Island in Davao. Locals and visitors assemble to enjoy cultural performances, banca racing and water sports competitions. June Santacruzan: locals don brightly coloured outfits and re-enact St Helene’s discovery of the cross of Christ. The event takes place in the residential areas of Belisario Heights and Lanang, which can be found a short distance north of Davao City. Tabanogan Festival: the feast of St Peter is celebrated in Davao with a number of festivities, among the most notable being the kite flying competition in which locals showcase their talents in this age-old activity. Independence Day: the 12th of June is a national holiday and sees residents of Davao enjoy a day off work to celebrate the country’s anniversary of the Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain. July Araw ng Davao del Sur, Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental: this is the annual celebration of Davao’s division into the three independent provinces of del Sur, del Norte and Oriental. A variety of festivities are enjoyed including horse fighting displays, beauty pageants and tribal dance performances. Filipino-American Friendship Day: the formal Declaration of Independence from the United States is celebrated across the country on the 4th of July. Davao residents enjoy a day off work. August Araw ng mga Bayani: otherwise known as National Heroes Day, this is a public holiday enjoyed by all on the 26th of August. Kadayawan sa Dabaw: in the second week of August, this festival is enjoyed by locals with a variety of events including a beauty pageant, ethnic performances, a fruit and flower show and more. September Osmeà ±a Day: this national holiday commemorates the now deceased fourth President of the Philippines, Sergio Osmeà ±a. October Ramadan: a small percentage of Davao’s residents are Muslim and therefore celebrate the Islamic month of abstinence called Ramadan. Locals eat sparingly and avoid indulgences of any kind for the duration of the period. November Eid ul-Fitr: the Muslim residents of Davao mark the end of the Ramadan period with get-togethers and family feasts. Bonifacio Day: the birth date of Filipino revolutionary leader Andres Bonifacio is celebrated by residents of the Davao region. December Lopez Jaena Day: the life of Graciano Là ³pez Jaena, one of the country’s most significant historic figures, is celebrated on the 18th of December. Christmas: beginning on the 15th of the month and lasting until the 31st, Paskuhan sa Dabaw is the country’s official Christmas season. The period is marked by a variety of festive events. New Years Eve (Bisperas ng Bagong Taon): is the official end of year celebration and sees a variety of festivities enjoyed across the Davao region. Davao City is particularly lively, holding various parties and putting on fireworks displays in a number of locations.

A nature and sources of data

A nature and sources of data Methodology Nature and sources of data The specific data required for this study were from primary and secondary sources. Secondary data were obtained from the Ibadan North Local Government Authority and Ibadan Waste Management Board. Analogue map of the study area was obtained from the Local Government headquarters. Land use map (1995), road map, elevation data, rail line data were made available from Ibadan Waste Management Board. A field visit was paid in order to determine the names of features on the analogue map in the attribute field of the digitised copy. GPS was used to capture points on ground for analysis. Hardware and Software The hardware used in this study included PC Pentium IV (RAM 250 MB, HD 2 GB), HP DeskJet 1220C color printer, HP Scanjet 2400, Logic Trace digitiser, Sony digital camera (8mp) and Garmin E trex 12 channels GPS receiver. The software used in preparing and analysis of the data included MS Excel, ArcView 3.3 with Network Analyst and Super decision for the AHP aspect. Digitising The base map was transformed into digital map for use in GIS by digitising using the platform of ArcView 3.3 GIS software. Digitising a map means converting an analogue map into a digital form by encoding the spatial coordinates of features on the map through the process of on-screen digitising. A digital map that is recognised by the computer in a GIS environment is the end-product of this exercise. Data analysis Five major GIS spatial operations were performed to achieve the set of objective for this project. These are, buffering, overlay, query, network analysis and nearest neighbourhood analysis Buffering It is a spatial analysis known as proximity analysis, generating zones of a given distance around a feature theme. It forms a polygon around a point, line or polygon theme by locating its boundaries at a specified distance. GIS can create buffer zones around selected features. The roads and rails were buffered at a radius of 100m (Javaheri 2006) while the streets were buffered at a radius of 30m. Overlay Overlay was performed to identify areas that meet all the set criteria and to show areas that do not meet the criteria. GIS can overlay different pieces of information. It helps in understanding the association between network analysis and specific geographic features. Ibadan North map and other data were overlaid to get possible sites. Query This command is used to answer the question of ‘what is and where is in GIS. The land use was queried to get the open space while the elevation was queried to get the suitable elevation. Network analysis Arc view Network Analyst is a powerful extension that provides network-based spatial analysis including routing, travel directions, closest facility, etc. This was made use of in this study to show the possible routes of connection from the transfer stations to the disposal site. Nearest Neighbour Analysis The nearest neighbour analysis helps to determine the nature of the distribution of the features which can be clustered or scattered. It is employed in this study to determine the pattern of skip distribution. If the index is less than 1, the pattern exhibits clustering and if greater than 1, the trend is toward dispersion. Cartographic model ‘The cartographic model is simply a graphical representation of data and procedures used in a study (Eastman 1995). It is a set of interacting ordered map operations that act on raw data as well as derive intermediate data to simulate a spatial decision making process (Tomlin, 1990). It shows all the layers of information starting with the base maps on the left and ending with the end product on the right. Its purposes are to help the analyst organise and structure the procedures that the analysis to be performed in a study will require and to identify the data needed to complete them. LU= Land-use The above cartographic model was constructed based on the following parameters: The land use maps was queried because site location must fall outside the land use areas so that settlement will not be polluted by the exhume/stench from the waste. The roads and rail were buffered at a distance of 100m and the streets were buffered at a distance of 30meters to create a good distance between them and the landfill site. The elevation was queried to get an elevation greater than or equal to 222meters so that it will not be located in an area that is too low because of water flow. Questionnaire Questionnaires were designed to seek public opinion as they include part of decision-making in a study such as this. 720 questionnaires were distributed among the various stakeholders, which include the public, planners and officials of Ibadan Municipal Government and Waste Management Board. In order to identify the criteria for siting, opinions from planners were required. Questionnaires were given out to 10 experts as part of public participation. Questionnaires were also distributed among the people living in the major areas where skips were to be allocated. These areas include, Oje market, Gbenla, Adeoyo, Danadaru, Premier Hotel, Jemebewon, Poly road, Cultural Centre, Bodija, Ikolaba, Oyo Secretariat. 60% of the questionnaires were distributed around the southern part as it was observed during field visit that most illegal dumpsites are around that area. Criteria for selection To arrive at the selection criteria for choosing a site for landfill, relevant literature and decision makers opinion were sought. Site must be close to at least a street with a buffer of 30m (Decision makers preference) Site must not be too far from a transfer station (Decision makers preference) Site must be 3km from residential areas, with the exception of areas with barriers (trees, hills, etc.) (Banar et al. 2007). There should be a minimum distance of 100m between site and roads (Decision makers preference, Javaheri et al. 2006) Site must be on a suitable soil. Site should be constructed in areas which do not have an important economic or ecological value (Lober 1995, Siddiqui et al. 1996). The AHP component Finally, in the second step, a decision hierarchical structure using the AHP was developed and implemented to rank the two suitable sites according to their suitability for landfill siting. The AHP can assist in identifying and weighting selection of criteria and expediting the process of decision making (Sener 2010). Preferences of decision makers can be included in a planning problem within an AHP. The problems then structured in a hierarchical form to allow for weighting of the preferences by pairwise comparisons (Phua and Minowa 2005). The AHP typically involves establishing a graphical representation of problem as a hierarchy, weighting the elements at each level of the hierarchy and calculating the weights (Phua and Minowa 2005). The AHP methodology compares criteria or alternatives with respect to a criterion, in a natural, pairwise mode. To achieve this, the AHP uses a fundamental scale of absolute numbers (Table 3.2) that has been tested in practice and validated by physical and decision problem experiments. It is perhaps the most widely used decision making approach today. The AHP is generally used to support other methodologies such as in deciding how many servers to employ in a queuing situation taking into account factors like costs, waiting times and human frustration. Several other applications include resource allocation, forecasting, etc. The Super Decisions software (Saaty 2003) was used in developing the AHP model. A Super Decisions model generally comprises clusters of elements rather than elements arranged in levels. Clusters contain node which represent the elements in them. For example, the criteria for siting a landfill may include proximity to transportation networks, proximity to waste collection centres, etc. These represent the nodes in the ‘Criteria cluster. When a line joins a cluster with another cluster, it means the nodes in both clusters are connected together. The main aim of using the AHP is to assign weights to criteria and come out with the best alternative.

The Hollow Men Essay -- essays research papers

The Theme of Emptiness in â€Å"The Hollow Men†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Hollow Men,† a poem written by T.S. Eliot shows the narrators disgust and his faithless attitude toward all mankind. He refers to the human race as being â€Å"hollow,† (1) and having a â€Å"headpiece filled with straw,† (4) which creates the feeling and theme of emptiness. Eliot also uses allusions, symbols, and repetition as powerful, and depressing poetic devices to make mankind seem hollow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The theme of emptiness is clearly visible throughout the poem, and it begins in the title. â€Å"The Hollow Men† refers to mankind being empty, and that there is no meaning to their life, and no purpose for the hollow men to go on. IN the first section of the poem, the second stanza states â€Å"Shape without form, shade without colour, Paralysed force, gesture without motion.† (11-12) Here Eliot puts strong ideas together in such a way that they seem to cancel out each other, leaving an empty feeling . In section three, Eliot used â€Å"dead,† (39) and â€Å"cactus† (40) to describe the setting, and â€Å"In deaths other kingdom/Walking alone,† (46-47) leaves the reader in an empty state of mind with no surroundings. When someone shouts into an empty, or wide area, it will always echo and repeat itself until it quietly dies off. This example of emptiness is expressed in the very last stanza of the poem, â€Å"This is the way th e world ends This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends Not with a b... The Hollow Men Essay -- essays research papers The Theme of Emptiness in â€Å"The Hollow Men†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Hollow Men,† a poem written by T.S. Eliot shows the narrators disgust and his faithless attitude toward all mankind. He refers to the human race as being â€Å"hollow,† (1) and having a â€Å"headpiece filled with straw,† (4) which creates the feeling and theme of emptiness. Eliot also uses allusions, symbols, and repetition as powerful, and depressing poetic devices to make mankind seem hollow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The theme of emptiness is clearly visible throughout the poem, and it begins in the title. â€Å"The Hollow Men† refers to mankind being empty, and that there is no meaning to their life, and no purpose for the hollow men to go on. IN the first section of the poem, the second stanza states â€Å"Shape without form, shade without colour, Paralysed force, gesture without motion.† (11-12) Here Eliot puts strong ideas together in such a way that they seem to cancel out each other, leaving an empty feeling . In section three, Eliot used â€Å"dead,† (39) and â€Å"cactus† (40) to describe the setting, and â€Å"In deaths other kingdom/Walking alone,† (46-47) leaves the reader in an empty state of mind with no surroundings. When someone shouts into an empty, or wide area, it will always echo and repeat itself until it quietly dies off. This example of emptiness is expressed in the very last stanza of the poem, â€Å"This is the way th e world ends This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends Not with a b...

Killer Angels Essays -- essays research papers

The novel The Killer Angles, by Michael Shaara, gives a story like depiction of the American Civil War at the Battle of Gettysburg. In this novel we see the views of both Confederate and Union armies. The officers for both sides in this novel used to go to war with each other but are now on different sides according to their political views. In the end both armies realized the war had accomplished nothing but all the deaths of soldiers. During the novel, the armies are going to war against their opponents and not necessarily their enemies.Despite the fact that the Confederate and Union armies were entirely concerned with defeating their opponent, many times they were fighting against relatives and friends. For instance, General Armistead says, "...will you tell General Hancock how ...

Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory and the CSI Effect on Jurors Essay

The Maricopa County Attorney’s Office presented a study in 2005 in which it examined the impact of the so-called â€Å"CSI effect† to its jurors. The data was gathered by means of surveying prosecutors who had jury trial experience, and from there, the study assessed the samples’ perceptions as to whether the â€Å"CSI effect† had played a part in the decision of some juries. Interestingly, although the â€Å"CSI effect† may be deemed an unlikely factor, the study showed that the â€Å"CSI effect† is real and may affect jury behavior (Maricopa County Attorney’s Office, 2005). Television watching, as some media theories have discussed, can create a psychological impact to its viewers especially as it can inevitably serve as an educational source; however, the problem lies in what television can actually teach (Condry, 1989). The presence of the â€Å"CSI effect† in justice and legal systems can be deemed significant especially as to how this may affect the judgment of the members of the jury. The idea that certain television genres, especially along the lines of the highly popular crime drama Crime Scene Investigation (CSI), can affect certain trial outcomes may seem outrageous, but the â€Å"CSI effect† has been established as a ground that connects the real-life justice and legal systems and products of media and entertainment (Smith, Patry and Stinson, 2008; Stevens, 2008; Mardis, 2006). As the effectiveness of the justice system also relies on the effectiveness of its jurors, the impact of the media and entertainment products towards people in this context may be deemed problematic (Stevens, 2008). This is why it is important to evaluate the impact of the â€Å"CSI effect† because of its implications thereby highlighting the relationship between the law and mass communications. The term â€Å"CSI effect† is based on the popular television show Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) and other shows that present the following basic premise: the ability of an (fictional) authoritative group in crime and justice that can expose the truth based on their systematic and sophisticated processes. However, since these shows are made for televisions, it is inevitable that these processes are glamorized and may not be realistic at all. The â€Å"CSI effect† therefore pertains to the influence of such television programs to the perceptions and behavior of the people, especially in relation to the justice and legal systems (Smith, Patry and Stinson, 2008). Stevens (2008) further explains that the â€Å"CSI effect† is based on fictionalized accounts as to what forensic science can do but, due to the twisted conceptions of reality of some viewers, there is the inescapable belief that these components of the shows are something happens in real life. Among the media and communication theories that can serve as fundamental framework of this assessment is Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory. The theory suggests that information sources such as television contribute to the cultivation of the individual and the social environment; therefore, conceptions of reality are formed (Gerbner & Gross, 1976; Gerbner, 1998). This theory can then be based on the concept that stories, as projected, tends to reflect a certain extent of reality, therefore, they animate a society’s cultural environment. As Gerbner (1999, ix) explained the functions of stories, they â€Å"illuminate the all-important but invisible relationships and hidden dynamics of life†; as these stories represent a degree of shared beliefs, the cultivation of these tales and representations therefore create a significant input to the perceived reality of individuals. The Cultivation Theory is also further supported by several studies conducted by Gerber and his colleagues with a focus on the impact of television to real world perceptions. This brings an interesting premise as the projected reality is based on fictional work; the impact of the cultivation thereby leads to behavioral effects. Television shows, as Gerbner (1998) pointed out, are important marketing tools that have affected not only the people’s perceptions but also their identity and expectations from the society. The validity of television can be based on its function, being a source of information and spectacle representing the shared images and history across many societies (Gerbner, 1998). This paper therefore aims to evaluate the relationship of Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory with the â€Å"CSI effect†, especially as to how this has affected and may affect juror perceptions and judgments. This study addresses this thesis by conducting a review of a series of related literatures that are deemed integral to a better and cohesive understanding between this phenomenon and the theory of cultivation. The findings and implications discuss the degree of impact of the â€Å"CSI effect† and whether this is something that the justice system should seriously consider and devote effort to. Furthermore, approaches towards the Cultivation Theory are also addressed especially in terms of its applicability to the â€Å"CSI effect† and juror behavior. The study then concludes with an analysis on how the findings may actually help in the formulation of a more effective jury screening process. Review of Literature Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory, the Media, and the Television A series of studies conducted by Gerbner and his colleagues tackled the effect of the television and its contribution to the formation of reality among its viewers which are, interestingly, found to be similar to the world in these television shows. Functioning under the umbrella of the Cultivation Theory, the studies also initiated cultivation analyses and the identification of cultural indicators that were also deemed to contribute to reality- and perception-formation among television viewers. As Gerbner (1998) explained these processes, the activity was spawned from the previous examinations on how stories, in general, may be formed for the purpose of manufacturing and marketing purposes. Television is therefore seen as an important medium in story-telling, especially how technological innovations seem to have continuously supported the role of the television in the society. As Gerbner’s studies (1998, 1999; Gerbner & Gross, 1984; Gerbner, Gross, Morgan & Signorelli, 1984) have emphasized the role and importance of television, the origins of cultivation found its venue in this particular technology and social tool. This is because media messages can be easily accessed through television, therefore the cultivation of social reality may be based on what the media feeds its viewers. However, as Gerbner (1998) noted, although the television may be an important tool, it merely plays an integral aspect in the overall dynamics of information processes and conception-formation. This is to say that, for instance, a person may be a huge fan of CSI because of its entertainment value, but the same person is also well-aware that what he or she is appreciating is fiction and not necessarily real and factual. Hence, it can be gathered from the cultivation theory that although television plays an integral role, its effect is not absolute as people are continuously exposed to many channels of information and messages (Gerbner, 1998). The cultivation, on one hand, is seen to be more effective is the viewer is experiences a repeated exposure to particular television images (Gerbner & Gross, 1976). The definition of cultivation is thereby defined as â€Å"the independent contributions television viewing makes to viewer conceptions of social reality. The ‘cultivation differential’ is the margin of difference in conceptions of reality between light and heavy viewers in the same demographic sub-groups† (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan and Signorielli, 1994, 23). An analysis towards Gebner’s theory is presented by Hughes (1980) who presented some shortcomings in the studies presented by the former and his colleagues in the context of the effect of violence in television to the perceived reality. The initial cultivation theory studies conducted by Gerbner in the1970s generally made use of the following controls: age, sex and education. Hughes pointed out that there were more factors that could affect the responses of the sample that participated in the General Social Survey such as race and income. This shows that the applicability of the cultivation theory is limited; hence, how television content may cultivate certain conceptions among individuals may be more minimal impact than expected. One of the studies that applied the notion of cultivation theory is a study conducted by Shrum (1999) where the author measured attitude strength and attitude extremity as implications of Gerbner’s cultivation theory. Shrum’s initial approach to the study was to weigh in theories along the lines of Gerbner’s work and its critics such as those presented by Hughes (1980). Basically, the author agreed with the identified shortcomings of Gerbner’s work although the criticisms were mostly based on the process Gerbner and his team used. Shrum also pointed out that one of the probable weaknesses of Gerbner’s work was the identification of the two main categories of samples in addition to the previously identified controls of age, sex and education: participants who were heavy television viewers and those who were light television viewers. The main purpose of Shrum’s study was to evaluate the impact of television towards the attitudes demonstrated. Although Shrum showed that what could limit Gerbner’s work was the issue on the lack of efficient design, the author approached the study in a similar manner — by comparing the results between heavy and light viewers — as a means to identify differences. The categorization between the heavy and the light viewers would prove to be simplistic yet substantial in the author’s approach especially as the samples he used fell in the same demographic categories which were students. The study’s result showed that it reflected Gerbner’s cultivation theory; apparently, heavy television watchers were found to have the tendency to perceive a â€Å"television world† as compared to the light television watchers. The study examined students who watched soap operas, hence, from the results, the sampled heavy viewers were found to have the tendency to experience more distrust and possibly, more marital problems. Shrum (1999) utilized regression approaches and analyses in order to come up with this conclusion. A similar study can be also found in Quick’s (2009) assessment of variation among patient response as based on whether they watch the medical drama Grey’s Anatomy. The study found that patients who heavily watched the show are most likely to have positive associations in terms of their perceptions towards doctors. The perception, according to this study, is not necessarily based on the positive portrayal of the doctors but rather the show was seen as a credible reference to what happens in the hospitals and how doctors can be expected to behave in this space. Hence, despite the presence of both positive and negative portrayals of medical professionals, heavy viewers of this particular show count the courageous and compassionate aspects of the fictional characters, hence, the study found that these patient-viewers have a positive perception towards their physicians. Quick (2009) mentioned, however, that although this context does not necessarily provide harm, the problem is that the sensationalization of the show may further cultivate wrong or high expectations from patients. Quick (2009) further mentioned that the implications of such results can be used to communicate accurate depictions such as, in the case of Grey’s Anatomy, conveying important health-related information. In a sense, by using the fictional channel such as television, viewers are able to be more informed in important issues. This is discussed by Appel (2008) in which the television plays an integral role in just-world beliefs; as Appel mentioned, the cultivation of beliefs can be specially affective among those who heavily watch television. Appel (2008) supported this posit by conducting a comparison study between Austrian and German television viewers; the main purpose of this research was to determine the degree of just-world beliefs among television viewers. The study showed that fictional narratives can change the perceptions of the people, and interestingly, these narratives usually feature a world that is just. Basically, what can be attributed to this impact can be pointed at the content of the program. The effectiveness of these messages in the â€Å"television world† is due to the following factors: the stimulation of moral evaluation paired with the presence of resolution, and at the same time, the entertainment value of these programs (Appel, 2008). This is why, according to the author, heavy television viewers especially those who watch a lot of fictional narratives demonstrate a strong belief in a just-world as compared to viewers of infotainment and non-fiction where belief in the mean-world is seen to be more emphasized. From this, content evidently plays a role in the amount of influence to the viewers, but from this study, the fictional programs are seen to be a more effective venue in changing the beliefs of the viewers. When it comes to content, genre plays a very important role. An important point raised by Cohen and Weinmann (2000) is that the viewers themselves unconsciously â€Å"cultivate† themselves through television because the viewers choose which shows to watch. The selection can be based on many factors, from age, education, sex, personality and even life experiences. Since genres vary as based on content and certain plot norms, it can be gathered that social realities in these contexts also differ. Which is why, according to the authors, the view and representations on the world are not similar, and at the same time, these program contents may also present conflicting perspectives. Hence, in the aspect of cultivation, different attitudes and world-views can be formed; Shrum’s (1999) and Quick’s (2009) studies are only therefore applicable to the specific genres they focused on (soap operas and Grey’s Anatomy, respectively) and the results towards attitudes and viewer response may be different if the study evaluated viewer response towards different shows. Cultivation Theory and the Crime TV Genre When it comes to the cultivation impact in crime genres in television, Dominick (1973) examined Gerbner’s theory specifically his studies in cultivation when it comes to crime- or violence-related shows. Dominick mentioned that prior to Gerbner’s study published in 1972, there were already past studies as to the presence of crime-related shows as found on television. In fact, as the author mentioned, it was found that even in the majority of the television shows in the 1950s demonstrated many programs of this genre, and that law enforcers were already highly stereotyped. Dominick (1973) cited Gerbner’s previous study as a stepping stone to further analyze crime and violence on television; according to the author, Gerbner’s studies, which covered television shows in the later half of the 1960s, showed a significant amount of violence and crime on television yet, in reality, there was the noted decrease in violence among criminals but the law enforcers maintained a certain degree of violence. In reflection, Dominick noted that on television, the law enforcers were seen as the main authoritative figure that always saves the day. Hence, in agreeing with Gerbner’s study, Dominick’s analysis lead to further contribution as to the role of cultivation theory especially as to how the audiences are influenced on their stereotype perceptions, especially in crime- and violence-related shows. Stereotyping seems to be a common element in television crime shows especially as this genre play up certain norms when it comes to the supposed social reality of crime. What is interesting is that racial elements were found to be contributory to these portrayals. For instance, in a study by Dixon (2007), the author noted that responses from heavy television viewers of crime-related programs are most likely the ones to reflect a racial bias in the identification of the perpetrator and the police officer. This shows that even though fact-based programs such as the news present reality, as also adapted in fictional programs, there is the aspect of racialized portrayals. Hence, cultivation in this context has led to certain media imageries that have become a social reality based on the collective perception towards crime racial stereotypes. However, what challenges this is presented by a study conducted by Grabe and Drew (2007) in which the authors examined how crime in the media would actually successfully cultivate specific crime orientations. According to the authors, the study of crime in the media has been a prominent subject in studying cultivation. Grabe and Drew conducted a study among 505 selected adults located in Indiana, and from this, the study concluded that there was a significant variance depending on the many media genres and channels. Hence, the study showed that crime orientation among individuals may not be as strongly influenced by the media especially as viewers have different personal orientations that may affect their own worldviews. This is also reflected by a study executed by Diefenbach and West (2001) in which the authors tested the effect of cultivation theory when it comes to perceptions on violence and crime as seen on television. However, Diefenbach and West also showed results which point at the influence of light versus heavy viewers perceptions. The study showed that projections on crime rates are higher among heavy television viewers. On one hand, it should be also noted that in this study, as the authors pointed out, the samples were limited among the participants from a small North Carolina town with crime rates below the national average. The background of the participants can then be said to factor into perceptions, which is to say, for instance, that projections from samples from a small town may differ from those from the city who have a greater exposure to criminal incidences in their communities. Another variation of a study applying the cultivation theory in crime television is conducted by Heath and Petraitis (1987). According to the study, adapted perceptions projected from the â€Å"television world† were believed to be mostly realistic in distant settings and not in their immediate environment. The study concluded that the fear viewers feel towards crime are more apparent among viewers who see the possibility of such incidents in a distant urban setting rather than in their neighborhood. Basically, based on these applications of the cultivation theory in the crime genre, it can be observed that the varying results are due to the different impacts of many factors. It is evident that one of the crime genre norms is the utilization of stereotyped portrayals which, in the end, does lead the viewers to make certain conclusions thereby affecting their crime orientations. On one hand, other studies further look at the derivatives at the actual effect of crime television exposure among the viewers, and this shows that the cultivation theory is applicable only up to a certain extent. The validity of Gerbner’s cultivation theory still has to rely on the background of the viewers, the relevance of the show’s content to the viewers’ reality, and the amount of media exposure a viewer may have. Hence, it is possible that some viewers demonstrate a quintessential example or a manifestation of Gerbner’s cultivation theory, but as time went on and as can be seen in the more recent cited studies on audience response towards crime television, perceptions in this context are not homogenous. The impact of television towards perception and behavior can then be regarded on a case-to-case basis, especially as audience exposure is no longer limited to the offerings of television, in addition to the fact that there has been also the emergence of sub-genres among many other shows.

The environmental management

Environmental Management is a really of import constituent of sustainable life. The interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary nature of Environmental Management enables it to work out the complex environmental jobs ( pollution, eroding, implosion therapy, deforestation, desertification, merely to call but a few ) that basically qualify our landscape at the local regional and planetary graduated table. To better understand these jobs, the subject draws on a wealth of expertness in both constructs and attacks from the natural or physical and societal scientific disciplines to develop this interdisciplinary. This essay seeks to research the nature of environmental direction and in peculiar, attending is drawn on the interdisciplinary and transdisciplinarity of environmental direction. The environmental jobs we face today are many and varied. From pollution, eroding, implosion therapy, deforestation, desertification, to climate change- all present themselves in really practical footings and as such environmental direction is more of import than of all time before. However, the field has been the topic of broad unfavorable judgment. For case Bryant and Wilson ( 1998 ) criticized the field as a consequence of the restrictions in the apprehension of root causes-political, economic or cultural issues. There is no by and large acceptable definition of the capable environmental direction. This is partially due to its ‘ wide range and in portion of the diverseness of specialism ( Barrow, 1999 ) . However, efforts have been made by several writers to specify environmental direction. For illustration, Riordan ( 1995 ) ; Barrow ( 1999 ) ; Wilson and Bryant ( 1997 ) ; Bryant and Geoff ( 2009 ) , have all made significant attempt to specify Environmental Management. Environmental direction has been defined as both a procedure and a field of survey ( Wilson and Bryant 1997 ) . In his book, Barrow ( 1999 p. 5 ) presented an overview of some definitions of Environmental Management. Like Environmental Management, definitions and readings of interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity abound in literature. For case, Klein, 2004 ; Tress and Tress, 2001 ; Tress et al. , 2005 ; Jones and Macdonald, 2007 ; Evans and Randalls, 2008 ; and Wesselink, 2009. In its simplest sense interdisciplinar ity is an integrative research attack that transects many disciplinary boundaries with a common end and the purpose of production of new cognition and theory ( Tress et al. , 2005 ) . As a procedure, Environmental Management, harmonizing to ( Wilson and Bryant, 1997 p.7 ) can be defined ‘ â€Å"as a multi-layered procedure associated with the interaction of province and non-state environmental directors with the environment and with each other. Environmental Directors are those whose support is chiefly dependent on the application of accomplishment in the active and self witting, direct or indirect, use of the environment with the purpose of heightening predictability in a context of societal and environmental uncertainness†¦ . † While the term ‘state ‘ will include province functionaries such as Department of the Environment, DoE, and Department of Environment Food and Rural Agriculture, DEFRA, merely to call a few, ‘non-state ‘ , on the other manus includes environmental NGOs, husbandmans, multinational corporations ( TNCs ) , hunter-gatherers. In this visible radiation, environmental direction is a procedure non sole merely to big national and international environmental histrions but inclusive to a scope of preponderantly local degree environmental histrions ( Wilson and Bryant, 1997 ) . On the other manus, Environmental direction, as a field of survey, evolved with the turning concern about environmental debasement in the late sixtiess and early 1970 ( Bryant and Geoff, 2009 ; Wilson and Bryant, 1997 ) after station industrialisation. Harmonizing to Barrow ( 2006: 24-26 ) Environmental Management as a field can be subdivided into the followers: â€Å"sustainable development issues ; environmental appraisal, patterning, prediction and hindcasting ; corporate environmental direction ; pollution acknowledgment and control ; environmental economic sciences ; environmental enforcement and statute law ; environment and development establishments and moralss ; environmental direction systems and quality issues ; environmental planning and direction ; appraisal of stakeholders involved in environmental direction ; environmental perceptual experiences and instruction ; community engagement for environmental management/sustainability ; establishment edifice for environmental management/sustainable development ; biodiversity preservation ; natural resources direction ; environmental rehabilitation/restoration ; environmental political relations ; environmental assistance and establishment building† . While the list is non thorough, partially because Environmental Management is comparatively a nascent subject ( Barrow, 2006 ) and is still germinating, its wide range is readily appreciated at a glimpse, as it tends to techno-centric job work outing attack instead than reactive attack. Table 1 high spots some separating characteristics of traditional environmental direction as it were during its early development and at present. Mentioning to interdisciplinarity, the interdisciplinary nature of environmental direction is more than merely integrating. It is basically a modern manner of believing that involves designation, definition every bit good as reading of surveies with the position of proffering practical oriented solutions to environmental jobs ( O'Riordan, 1995 ) . Again, Transdisciplinary surveies harmonizing to Tress et Al. ( 2005 ) involves the integrating of both academic and non-academic participant ( stakeholders ) to research a common end with the creative activity of new cognition and theory. It is expressed from the definitions above that interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity are both integrative, in that new cognition and theory is created. However, a distinguishing component is that ‘transdisciplinary research combines interdisciplinarity with a participatory attack ( Tress et al. , 2005 ) Traditional Environmental Management Modern Environmental ManagementLargely ‘top-down attack ‘ ‘Bottom-up ‘ attackManagement was autocratic participatory and much more integrativeShort term program Long term program and hence sustainableExploitational in attack Emphasizes stewardship instead than development.Tends to be reactive Tends to be proactive and participatoryDisciplinary, at best multidisciplinary Interdisciplinary, or even holistic in attackState centric Non province factors involved in the procedure of EMInfluence of natural scientific discipline subject Shift from the natural scientific discipline to societal scientific disciplineBraid and Tress ( 2001 ) introduced a transdisciplinary landscape construct. The transdisciplinary landscape construct, harmonizing to Tress and Tress ( 2001 ) is based on five dimensions: the spacial entity, the mental entity, the temporal dimension, the link of nature and civilization, and the systemic belongingss of lan dscape. The significance of coaction in interdisciplinary and trandisciplinary research in the apprehension of human-environment interaction can non be overemphasized. Although environmental direction takes its root from the natural scientific discipline, nevertheless at that place seems to be a displacement from the natural scientific discipline to societal scientific discipline ( Bryant and Wilson, 1998 ) . Figure 1 as shown in the appendix depicts the profound influence from the societal scientific disciplines and once more, in the words of Wilsons and Bryant ( 1997, p 17 ) ‘Environmental Management operates at the intersection of a scope of subjects and subdisciplines ‘ . From the foregoing, It is obvious that Environmental Management is progressively going interdisciplinary and using a great trade of transdisciplinarity attacks. For illustration, Wesselink ( 2008 ) and Potschin and Haines-Young ( 2005 ) have emphasized the importance of using transdisciplinarity in their surveies of land usage planning and landscape ecology respectively.. While the environmental jobs we face today are many and varied both in range and complexness, no one subject can efficaciously supply the cognition adequate plenty to to the full understand nor work out them ( Tress and Tress, 2001 ) . Modern attacks of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinarity in Environmental Management can be a Panacea of all local to planetary environmental ailments. This notwithstanding, more powerful and robust tools are needed for covering with the jobs of scaling and uncertainness which are important in the human-environment interaction at all graduated table. It is the place of this essay, hence, that while the hunt for a strong and robust tools continues in order to extenuate, control and prevent environmental jobs, active audience and coaction with local communities is a necessary ingredient for sustainable solution.MentionsBarrow, C. J 1999. Environmental Management: Principles and Practice. Routledge, London.Barrow, C. J. 2006. Environmental Management f or Sustainable Development. 2nd edition. Routledge, London.Bryant R.L and Wilson G.A 1998. Rethinking Environmental Management. Advancement in Human Geography 22 ( 3 ) pp 321-343Evans, J. and Randalls, S. 2008 Geography and Paratactical Interdisciplinarity: Positions from the ESRC-NERC PhD studentship programme. Geoforum 39 pp 581-592Jones, P. and Macdonald, N. 2007. Geting it incorrect first clip: edifice on interdisciplinary research relationship. Area 39 ( 4 ) pp 490-498.O'Riordan, T. erectile dysfunction 1995 Environmental Science for Environmental Management Longman Scientific & A ; Technical, England.Potschin, M and Haines-Young, R. 2006. †Rio+10 † , Sustainability Science and Landscape Ecology. Landscape and urban planning. 75, 162-74.Phillipson, J. and Lowe, P. 2009 Barriers to Research Collaboration across subjects: scientific paradigms and institutional patterns. Environment and Planing 41, pp 1171-1184Klein, J. T. 2004 Prospects for Transdisciplinarity. Future s 36 pp 515-526Braid, B and Tress, G 2001 Capitalising on Multiplicity: A Transdisciplinary Systems Approach to Landscape Research. Landscape and Urban Planning 57, pp 143-157Braid, B. , Tress, G. , Fry, G. and Opdam, P. 2005 explosive detection systems. From Landscape Research to Landscape Planning: Aspects of Integration, Education and Application. Springer, Netherland.Wesselink, A 2009. The Emergence of interdisciplinary Knowledge in Problem-focussed Research. Area 41 ( 4 ) pp. 404-413.Wilson, G. A and Bryant, R.L 1997. Environmental Management: New Directions fot the Twenty-First Century.UCL, London